The learned helplessness theory of depression posits that pervasive experiences of failure or negative events can lead to decreased motivation and an increased risk for depression This theory suggests that when individuals repeatedly face situations where they have no control over outcomes, they may develop a sense of helplessness that generalizes to various aspects of their lives, impacting their ability to pursue and achieve goals.
In contrast to other depression theories, such as the cognitive perspective that focuses on distorted thinking patterns and the reinforcement learning-based mechanisms that may manifest in depressed individuals, this theory emphasizes the role of uncontrollable stressors in inhibiting cognitive, emotional, and motor functions, making it a viable model for understanding depression across species
Learned helplessness arises when an individual experiences a repeated or traumatic event that they perceive as uncontrollable. As a result, they may come to believe that nothing they do can change the outcome, causing a state of passivity and resignation.
This behavioral phenomenon is not only restricted to humans but has been widely studied in animals as well. The basic principles involve a reduced motivation to respond, a diminished ability to learn new avoidance responses, and emotional stress when faced with an adverse situation.
Martin Seligman’s experiments with dogs in the 1960s were pivotal in the formulation of the theory of learned helplessness. Seligman exposed the dogs to electric shocks that were inescapable and observed that the animals eventually stopped trying to avoid the shocks, even when later placed in a situation where escape was possible.
This suggested that the dogs had learned that their behavior had no effect on their environment, a concept that Seligman then extended to explain certain forms of human depression and other mental health disorders. These experiments laid the groundwork for a broader understanding of the behavioral phenomenon and its implications for therapy and psychological resilience.
Later, Seligman created the idea of learned optimism, which holds that individuals can overcome a cycle of powerlessness by creating a constructive internal dialogue and an explanation of events to themselves.
Behavioral Manifestations
Individuals exhibiting learned helplessness typically demonstrate a pattern of behavior that reflects a diminished response to seek solutions or escape from adverse situations. Such behaviors may manifest as passivity, where one might avoid attempting to change circumstances, even when opportunities for change are present.
Studies have indicated that the behaviors of learned helplessness can mirror symptoms of depression, further complicating an individual’s ability to engage actively with their surroundings.
Perceived control is a pivotal factor in learned helplessness, as it dictates one’s belief in their ability to influence the outcomes in their life. When this belief is weakened, individuals may feel unable to alter negative circumstances, which can lead to a decline in attempts to escape or alter an aversive stimulus. This suggests that targeting perceptions of control may present a pathway to countering learned helplessness and enhancing performance in various areas of life.
Individuals may become more reliant on others, reduce their contribution to the relationship, or develop a dependency that is rooted in the belief that they are unable to cope independently. Consequently, this can create a strain on partners or family members who may feel an increased burden or experience emotional frustration in response to the individual’s passive demeanor.
Cognitive Aspects of Learned Helplessness
Psychologists have identified a substantial link between depression-like symptoms and acquired helplessness in laboratory animals. According to Steven Maier, a professor at the University of Colorado, sadness may be induced by “impaired medial prefrontal cortical inhibitory control over stress-responsive limbic and brainstem structures.”
Stressful circumstances may contribute to the comorbidity of psychological problems and learned helplessness. Maier also says that depression isn’t the only mental condition involved, and that it could be linked to others.
Learned helplessness can lead to a significant decrease in an individual’s motivation. When someone repeatedly faces uncontrollable circumstances, they may begin to expect future efforts to also result in failure.
This can lead to low motivation and a reduction in persistence when faced with new tasks. Although the individual may have the ability to effect change, the expectation of helplessness undermines their incentive to try, often resulting in a self-fulfilling prophecy of failure.
A prominent cognitive characteristic linked to learned helplessness is a pessimistic explanatory style. Individuals exhibiting this style tend to attribute negative events to internal, stable, and global causes, indicating that they view such occurrences as their fault (negative self-talk), unchangeable, and reflective of further problems in their life.
They often discount positive events as external, unstable, and specific, indicating that triumphs are seen as flukes rather than a result of their own competencies or efforts.
Learned helplessness can severely impact an individual’s self-esteem and self-efficacy. Persistent exposure to uncontrollable events can result in low self-esteem, as individuals might internalize failure and consequently view themselves in a negative light.
Moreover, when people perceive themselves as ineffective (low self-efficacy), they may avoid challenging tasks, expecting that their efforts would not affect the outcome. This negative anticipation prevents them from accumulating successful experiences, thereby perpetuating the cycle of helplessness.
Development of Phobias and Apathy
Learned helplessness also contributes to the development of phobias by associating specific stimuli with a sense of unavoidable fear or discomfort, without seeking means of coping or avoidance. In severe cases, this can translate into irrational and debilitating fears that impact daily functioning.
Additionally, the overarching sensation of powerlessness can lead to apathy, a state characterized by a lack of emotion, interest, or concern about one’s self or surroundings. Such disinterest in actively engaging with life can result from repeated exposure to unchangeable distressing situations, which is often discussed in the context of learned helplessness in educational settings, as it relates to low achievement and learning disabilities.
Social Impacts
In educational contexts, learned helplessness can significantly affect a student’s motivation and performance. Children who develop a sense of helplessness after repeated failures may cease to put effort into learning tasks, believing their efforts won’t lead to success.
With emotionally abusive relationships, the victim frequently develops learned helplessness. This occurs when the victim confronts or attempts to leave the abuser, only to have the abuser ignore or ridicule the victim’s sentiments, seem to care but not change, or obstruct the victim’s departure.
As the abuse worsens, the victim will begin to give up and exhibit characteristics of learned helplessness.This can lead to a traumatic attachment with one’s victimizer, as seen in Stockholm syndrome or Battered Woman syndrome.
As people age, the onset of learned helplessness can impede personal growth and adaptation to new life stages. The belief that one’s actions have no effect on outcomes can lead to a decline in trying new activities or engaging socially, which are critical components for healthy aging. This self-perception of inefficacy can be exacerbated by the natural decline in physical and cognitive abilities that come with aging, reinforcing the helplessness cycle.
Ruby K. Payne argues in her book A Framework for Understanding Poverty, that how the poor are treated can create a cycle of poverty, a culture of poverty, and generational poverty. This sort of learned helplessness is transmitted from parents to children. People that embrace this mentality believe there is no way out of poverty, so they must live in the present moment and not plan for the future, keeping families in poverty.
Social issues stemming from acquired passivity may appear inevitable to individuals deeply entrenched in this state. Nevertheless, there exist a variety of methods to diminish or avert this phenomenon.
In experimental contexts, the resolution of learned helplessness has been observed to occur naturally over time. By enhancing individuals’ recollection of past situations where they successfully influenced outcomes, they can develop a resistance to the belief that circumstances are beyond their control.
Utilizing cognitive therapy enables individuals to recognize the impact of their actions and enhance their self-worth. Engaging in such therapeutic interventions can prove highly beneficial for individuals trapped in a cycle of learned helplessness. Although breaking free may initially present challenges, with adequate time and support, improvement is achievable.
Neuroscience and Biology
Steven F. Maier has significantly advanced the understanding of learned helplessness. His work has demonstrated the role of cognitive processes, revealing that the perception of lack of control, rather than the experience of uncontrollable events themselves, is critical in the development of learned helplessness.
Maier’s research on the dorsal raphe nucleus and its connections with other brain areas has been instrumental in correlating the behavioral aspects with physiological responses.
Increased 5-HT (serotonin) activity in the dorsal raphe nucleus has been linked to learned helplessness, according to research. The basolateral amygdala, central nucleus of the amygdala, and bed nucleus of the stria terminalis are other important brain locations for expressing helpless behavior. Helplessness has also been linked to activity in the medial prefrontal cortex, dorsal hippocampus, septum, and hypothalamus.
References:
- Chang, E.C.; Sanna, L.J. (2007). Affectivity and psychological adjustment across two adult generations: Does pessimistic explanatory style still matter? Personality and Individual Differences. 43 (5): 1149–59. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2007.03.007
- Goetz, T. E.; Dweck, C. S. (1980). Learned helplessness in social situations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 39 (2): 246–255. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.39.2.246
- Hammack SE, Cooper MA, Lezak KR (2012). Overlapping neurobiology of learned helplessness and conditioned defeat: implications for PTSD and mood disorders. Neuropharmacology. 62 (2). University of Vermont: 565–575. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.02.024
- Klaus, R., Scherer. (2022). Learned helplessness revisited: biased evaluation of goals and action potential are major risk factors for emotional disturbance. Cognition & Emotion, doi: 10.1080/02699931.2022.2141002
- Maier SF, Watkins LR (2005). Stressor controllability and learned helplessness: the roles of the dorsal raphe nucleus, serotonin, and corticotropin-releasing factor. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 29 (4–5): 829–841. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2005.03.021
- Maier SF, Seligman ME (2016) Learned helplessness at fifty: Insights from neuroscience. Psychological Review. 123 (4): 349–367. doi: 10.1037/rev0000033
- Orbach, E.; Hadas, Z. (1982). The elimination of learned helplessness deficits as a function of induced self-esteem. Journal of Research in Personality. 16 (4): 511–23. doi: 10.1016/0092-6566(82)90009-5
- Payne, Ruby K. Framework for understanding poverty. Highlands, Tex: Aha! Process, 2005
- Rodin J (1986). Aging and health: effects of the sense of control. Science. 233 (4770): 1271–1276. .233.1271R. doi: 10.1126/science.3749877
- Seligman, M. E. (1975). Helplessness: On Depression, Development, and Death. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman ISBN 978-0-7167-2328-8
- Valås, H. (2001). Learned Helplessness and Psychological Adjustment II: Effects of learning disabilities and low achievement. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 45(2), 101–114